global warming

This article is about the effects of global warming and climate change.[2] The effects, or impacts, of climate change may be physical, ecological, social or economic. Evidence of observed climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere.[3] According to IPCC (2007a:10), "[most] of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in [human greenhouse gas] concentrations". It is predicted that future climate changes will include further global warming (i.e., an upward trend in global mean temperature), sea level rise, and a probable increase in the frequency of some extreme weather events. Signatories of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change have agreed to implement policies designed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases. Overview Global mean surface temperature difference from the average for 1880-2009 Mean surface temperature change for the period 1999 to 2008 relative to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Over the last hundred years or so, the instrumental temperature record has shown a trend in climate of increased global mean temperature, i.e., global warming. Other observed changes include Arctic shrinkage, Arctic methane release, releases of terrestrial carbon from permafrost regions and Arctic methane release in coastal sediments, and sea level rise.[4][5] Global average temperature is predicted to increase over this century, with a probable increase in frequency of some extreme weather events, and changes in rainfall patterns. Moving from global to regional scales, there is increased uncertainty over how climate will change. The probability of warming having unforeseen consequences increases with the rate, magnitude, and duration of climate change.[6] Some of the physical impacts of climate change are irreversible at continental and global scales.[7] With medium confidence, IPCC (2007b:17) concluded that with a global average temperature increase of 1–4°C, (relative to 1990–2000) partial deglaciation of the Greenland ice sheet would occur over a period of centuries to millennia.[8] Including the possible contribution of partial deglaciation of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, sea level would rise by 4–6 m or more. The impacts of climate change across world population will not be distributed evenly (Smith et al., 2001:957).[9] Some regions and sectors are expected to experience benefits while others will experience costs. With greater levels of warming (greater than 2–3°C by 2100, relative to 1990 temperature levels), it is very likely that benefits will decline and costs increase (IPCC, 2007b:17). Low-latitude and less-developed areas are probably at the greatest risk from climate change (Schneider et al.., 2007:781).[10] With human systems, adaptation potential for climate change impacts is considerable, although the costs of adaptation are largely unknown and potentially large. In a literature assessment, Schneider et al.. (2007:792) concluded, with high confidence, that climate change would likely result in reduced diversity of ecosystems and the extinction of many species. Definition of climate change This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC. In their usage, "climate change" refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties, and that persists for extended periods, typically decades or longer (IPCC, 2007d:30).[11] The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes or the result of human activity. Physical impacts Main article: Physical impacts of climate change This section describes some physical impacts of climate change. For some of these physical impacts, their effect on social and economic systems are also described. Effects on weather Increasing temperature is likely to lead to increasing precipitation [12][13] but the effects on storms are less clear. Extratropical storms partly depend on the temperature gradient, which is predicted to weaken in the northern hemisphere as the polar region warms more than the rest of the hemisphere.[14] Extreme weather See also: Extreme weather, Tropical cyclone#Global warming, and List of Atlantic hurricane records IPCC (2007a:8) predicted that in the future, over most land areas, the frequency of warm spells or heat waves would very likely increase.[3] Other likely changes are listed below: * Increased areas will be affected by drought * There will be increased intense tropical cyclone activity * There will be increased incidences of extreme high sea level (excluding tsunamis) Local climate change Main article: Regional effects of global warming The first recorded South Atlantic hurricane, "Catarina", which hit Brazil in March 2004 Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice. In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system. In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend. There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise. Biogeochemical cycles See also: climate change feedback Climate change may have an effect on the carbon cycle in an interactive "feedback" process . A feedback exists where an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn influences the initial process. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces it (IPCC, 2007d:78).[11] Models suggest that the interaction of the climate system and the carbon cycle is one where the feedback effect is positive (Schneider et al.., 2007:792).[10] Using the A2 SRES emissions scenario, Schneider et al.. (2007:789) found that this effect led to additional warming by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 period, of 0.1 to 1.5 °C. This estimate was made with high confidence. The climate projections made in the IPCC Forth Assessment Report of 1.1 to 6.4 °C account for this feedback effect. On the other hand, with medium confidence, Schneider et al.. (2007) commented that additional releases of GHGs were possible from permafrost, peat lands, wetlands, and large stores of marine hydrates at high latitudes. Glacier retreat and disappearance Main article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 A map of the change in thickness of mountain glaciers since 1970. Thinning in orange and red, thickening in blue. IPCC (2007a:5) found that, on average, mountain glaciers and snow cover had decreased in both the northern and southern hemispheres.[3] This widespread decrease in glaciers and ice caps has contributed to observed sea level rise. With very high or high confidence, IPCC (2007d:11) made a number of predictions relating to future changes in glaciers:[11] * Mountainous areas in Europe will face glacier retreat * In Latin America, changes in precipitation patterns and the disappearance of glaciers will significantly affect water availability for human consumption, agriculture, and energy production * In Polar regions, there will be reductions in glacier extent and the thickness of glaciers. Oceans The role of the oceans in global warming is a complex one. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2. Global warming is projected to have a number of effects on the oceans. Ongoing effects include rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of the ocean surface, leading to increased temperature stratification. Other possible effects include large-scale changes in ocean circulation. Acidification Main article: Ocean acidification Dissolving CO2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH. Caldeira and Wickett (2003) placed the rate and magnitude of modern ocean acidification changes in the context of probable historical changes during the last 300 million years.[15] Since the industrial revolution began, it is estimated that surface ocean pH has dropped by slightly more than 0.1 units (on the logarithmic scale of pH; approximately a 30% increase in H+), and it is estimated that it will drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 units (more than doubling ocean H+ concentrations) by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic CO2.[15] [16][17] Oxygen depletion The amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans may decline, with adverse consequences for ocean life.[18][19] Sea level rise Main article: Current sea level rise IPCC (2007a:5) reported that since 1961, global average sea level had risen at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr.[3] Between 1993 and 2003, the rate increased above the previous period to 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr. IPCC (2007a) were uncertain whether the increase in rate from 1993 to 2003 was due to natural variations in sea level over the time period, or whether it reflected an increase in the underlying long-term trend. IPCC (2007a:13, 14) projected sea level rise to the end of the 21st century using the SRES emission scenarios. Across the six SRES marker scenarios, sea level was projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.1 to 23.2 inches). This projection was for the time period 2090-2099, with the increase in level relative to average sea levels over the 1980-1999 period. Due to a lack of scientific understanding, this sea level rise estimate does not include all of the possible contributions of ice sheets (see the section on abrupt or irreversible changes). Temperature rise From 1961 to 2003, the global ocean temperature has risen by 0.10 °C from the surface to a depth of 700 m. There is variability both year-to-year and over longer time scales, with global ocean heat content observations showing high rates of warming for 1991 to 2003, but some cooling from 2003 to 2007.[20] The temperature of the Antarctic Southern Ocean rose by 0.17 °C (0.31 °F) between the 1950s and the 1980s, nearly twice the rate for the world's oceans as a whole [21]. As well as having effects on ecosystems (e.g. by melting sea ice, affecting algae that grow on its underside), warming reduces the ocean's ability to absorb CO2.[citation needed] Social systems Main article: Climate change, industry and society Food supply Main article: Climate change and agriculture See also: Food security, Food vs fuel, and 2007–2008 world food price crisis Climate change will impact agriculture and food production around the world due to: the effects of elevated CO2 in the atmosphere, higher temperatures, altered precipitation and transpiration regimes, increased frequency of extreme events, and modified weed, pest, and pathogen pressure (Easterling et al.., 2007:282).[22] In general, low-latitude areas are at most risk of having decreased crop yields (Schneider et al.., 2007:790).[10] With low to medium confidence, Schneider et al.. (2007:787) concluded that for about a 1 to 3°C global mean temperature increase (by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 average level) there would be productivity decreases for some cereals in low latitudes, and productivity increases in high latitudes. With medium confidence, global production potential was predicted to: * increase up to around 3°C, * very likely decrease above about 3 to 4°C. Most of the studies on global agriculture assessed by Schneider et al.. (2007:790) had not incorporated a number of critical factors, including changes in extreme events, or the spread of pests and diseases. Studies had also not considered the development of specific practices or technologies to aid adaptation. Health Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy (Confalonieri et al.., 2007:393).[23] According to a literature assessment by Confalonieri et al.. (2007:393), the effects of climate change to date have been small, but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions. With high confidence, Confalonieri et al.. (2007:393) concluded that climate change had altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen species. With medium confidence, they concluded that climate change had: * altered the distribution of some infectious disease vectors * increased heatwave-related deaths With high confidence, IPCC (2007d:48) projected that:[11] * the health status of millions of people would be affected through, for example, increases in malnutrition; increased deaths, diseases and injury due to extreme weather events; increased burden of diarrhoeal diseases; increased frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases due to high concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas related to climate change; and altered spatial distribution of some infectious diseases. * climate change would bring some benefits in temperate areas, such as fewer deaths from cold exposure, and some mixed effects such as changes in range and transmission potential of malaria in Africa. Overall, IPCC (2007d:48) expected that benefits would be outweighed by negative health effects of rising temperatures, especially in developing countries. With very high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007:393) concluded that economic development was an important component of possible adaptation to climate change. Economic growth on its own, however, was not judged to be sufficient to insulate the world's population from disease and injury due to climate change. The manner in which economic growth occurs was judged to be important, along with how the benefits of growth are distributed in society. Examples of other important factors in determining the health of populations were listed as: education, health care, and public-health infrastructure.

Wednesday, September 15, 2010

East Africa Tourism

DOMESTIC TOURISM IN AFRICA

(East Africa Domestic tourism, Kenya Domestic tourism, East Africa Community domestic Tourism, Domestic tourism Packages, Lake Victoria Domestic Tourism Adventure, Maasai Mara Domestic Tourism, East Africa Coast Domestic Tourism, Kenya Beaches Domestic Tourism)
Domestic Tourism in Kenya
Accommodation in the Parks

Domestic Tourism in East Africa
Domestic Tourism is gaining momentum in East Africa. The hotel industry has several packages for residents of Kenya ,Uganda and Tanzania. These packages include the Flight fees, Airport transfers, Hotel accommodations and sometimes All inclusive trip package. These packages are encouraged during Low seasons when hotel occupancies are low.

It is not a wonder to mention that many Kenyans do not Know the availability of tourism destinations in Kenya. This applies to the neighboring countries of Uganda and Tanzania. Take a sample of Ten (10) Kenya executives and ask them who amongst them have been to a game park, you will be surprised to learn that half (50%) of then have never seen an Elephant alive. Most Kenyans assume that the cost of tourism is so high that it is cheaper driving to the Rural homestead than to the coast of Mombasa or the Lodge in Maasai Mara for a weekend retreat, and that it is the white person who should go for a holiday in the various hotels and lodges in the wild and the coast.

We at Victoria Safaris encourage various Multi-national companies, government departments, parastatals, individuals and NGO’s to finance tours for their executives and family to the game parks and to the coastal hotels and Lodges where we have subsidized contract rates for accommodation and conference facilities. Africans should know Africa better than the white person from outside Africa, the latter being the case presently.

East Africa Community Domestic Tourism
Domestic Tourism is Tourism of resident visitors within the economic territory of the country of reference. The domestic tourism that we are involved cover the five countries of East Africa; Kenya, Uganda, Ruanda, Burundi and Tanzania. With the re creation of the East Africa Community, Domestic tourism covers the five countries as one united body under one umbrella-The East Africa Community Domestic Tourism.

Inter - Country Domestic Tourism
It is important to for all the residents of the East Africa community to tour and travel all over the entire countries within the East Africa community in order to witness and experience the wealth in Tourism Industry East Africa community is habouring.Ease of travel to and from each countries is being addressed by each individual state and sooner all later inter-state travel arrangements would be a bygone obstacle to domestic tourism in the region.

Victoria Safaris are ready to plan your domestic tourism within East Africa. Please use our customized Booking form to customize your Domestic tourism within East Africa.
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Domestic Tourism in Kenya
Victoria Safaris in conjunction with various hotels, lodges and camps is offering incentive Domestic Tour Packages to individuals, Families, corporate, Government and parastatal organizations. when you arrange for a holiday, Whether you are going on a tour either as an individual, family, group of friends or with colleagues at work, you will now affordably spend a holiday anywhere in Kenya or within East Africa community.

It is in Kenya where you can witness safari vehicles en route every day all year round. whatever your heart desires, Kenya has all that a visitor would want to see and do from the beautiful shores of Lake Victoria and its welcoming Luo cultural Community, the big game safaris and now the New 7th wonder of the world - The Maasai Mara with its Annual Migration of the wildebeest, the pristine beaches along the Kenyan coast and the beautiful snow-capped mount Kenya under the equator line, lastly is the cultural and community ecotourism experience. Many residents of Kenya deserve domestic tourism which covers: -

The Kenya wildlife Safari, Kenya scenic safari, Kenya cultural and community safari, Kenya Eco tourism safari, Kenya beach safari, Kenya Adventure safari, Kenya Sports safari, Retreats and incentive Tourism, Kenya Agro tourism safari, Kenya specialized safari and lastly is the Kenya Business safari.

These domestic tourism packages are offered to the following;

Individual & Group Travel
This group of domestic tourists consists of single (solo) men and women, Married couples and students who would want a retreat far away from their normal living environment. Newly married couples are urged to spend their honeymoon adventure on a domestic tourist holiday site such as the beaches of Lake Victoria, the Mombasa coast and the wildlife game lodges.
Kiboko Bay, Kisumu
Motorcross at Kasarani

Family Domestic Tourism
This targets the family members of Kenya who want to discover Kenya. The rush for rural home holiday travel is slowly ending as many family members are visiting the tourist sites such as the Maasai Mara, the Mombasa beach hotels, the Lake Victoria towns are visited by various non - Luo communities who want to see the Lake Victoria and to have a taste of fishing and boat rides on the lake.

Corporate Domestic and Incentive Tourism
Institutions and corporate bodies in Kenya are encouraging their management teams, senior staff members and employees to join the domestic tourism sector by paying holiday packages for senior staff and their family members, the best performers such as the best salesman of the year and his family, the best employee of the year and family, the best department staff members of the year and their family members. Retreats and Incentive Tourism is the most preferred tours for the corporate sector in that they take their workshops far away in the tourists sites from the normal office environment. This increases the domestic tourism docket. Victoria Safaris participates in the bookings and transport to these venues.

Educational and Study Domestic Tourism
Educational institutions arrange student tours per semester to various tourist sites. These include the Wildlife tours by the wildlife clubs, the agricultural shows, the Scouts and the girl guides clubs, university research students, wildlife and tourism clubs, etc. Victoria Safaris participate in these programmes by transporting the students to various sites.

Special Interests Groups Domestic Tourism
These groups include the disabled, the women, single mothers, women groups, the Ngo staff and their families, the newly married and any other groups with special interests who would save their money for a safari or a tour to the wilderness or lake Victoria region or any of the tourists sites. Coast is famous for most Kenyans while we also have the virgin western Kenya tourist circuit.

Victoria Safaris will tailor make your tours and safaris, thus encouraging domestic tourism.
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