Nairobi — Higher Education minister William Ruto has given public universities an ultimatum - phase off all courses that will not help Kenya industrialise if they want to continue getting government funding.
Ruto met with vice chancellors of the public universities to discuss how they will identify and relegate to the parallel programmes such courses which will be found not to be relevant to the Vision 2030 development strategy.
"Grants to public universities will be reviewed on the basis of the number of courses and the students. Grants will be based on important courses because not all courses are relevant to attaining Vision 2030 and therefore do not cost the same," Ruto said. According to Ruto's plan, only those courses found to aid the attainment of Vision 2030 will receive full government funding while students taking other courses not categorized as contributing to the attainment of this vision will receive no funding and will have to pat full tuition.
This means that the capacity of universities to absorb more students taking the Vision 2030-compliant courses will be increased at the expense of the other courses.
The proposal is contained in a new cash review proposal submitted by Ruto which is aimed at ensuring that public universities only receive government funding on the number of students taking 'certain important courses'. The minister did not however name the 'certain important courses' he was referring to.
Suggestions that public universities lay more emphasis on such courses like engineering, medicine, architecture and physical planning have been made in past education fora where participants have expressed concern at the lack of such skills. They have pointed out the dire lack of such professionals and cited as an example, physical planners. Only Nairobi city and lately Mombasa and Kisumu towns have qualified physical planners.
Yesterday, the Architectural Association of Kenya chairman Steven Oundo said some of the important courses the minister was referring to include agriculture, construction, architecture, engineering survey, medicine and information technology. "These are usually science subjects. Most students who want to take art subjects should not be excluded to accommodate science students to achieve Vision 2030," he said adding that the country still needed lawyers, teachers and even historians. He said that while the problem has been funding for learning institutions, students not taking sciences should not be forced to join parallel programmes.
'We should instead have parallel colleges for sciences and arts subjects,"Oundo said.
He said Kenya had only 1, 200 architects with only two schools (UoN) and Jkuat while Nigeria had 16,000 with 28 schools and Egypt has 33,000 architects.
Ruto said funding grants to public universities will be reviewed after an agreement with the seven heads of public universities and 13 heads of constituent colleges.
He added the courses will be central to assist government in providing services to the people.
Yesterday's meeting largely focused on how to train the relevant personnel for industry and the job market, avail affordable university education opportunities through assisting universities to develop additional facilities for learning.
Ruto said his ministry would provide a platform for both public and private universities to churn out industry and commerce required professionals.
He said there was a lack of teaching personnel in both public and private universities. The meeting agreed to ensure that more post graduates, Masters and Doctorate students were trained in the relevant disciplines to provide the teaching personnel which was key to making education meet the demands of Vision 2030. Ruto met with heads of private universities last week.
Yesterday's meeting also agreed that public and private universities will benefit from tax exemptions in building materials.
"The meeting has agreed that universities benefit from tax exemptions in building materials so as to enable them develop further teaching facilities and create room for more admissions." He said his ministry will hold discussions with the Finance ministry on how the tax exemptions will effected.
He said the government would also consider introducing university bonds to help universities in building the extra lecture halls and other facilities.
The bonds are expected to make money cheaply available to the universities at an interest of between six and eight per cent instead of the current 12 to 18 per cent.
Ruto also gave public universities two months to come up with suggestions about what needed to be done to solve the huge backlog university admissions.
Nearly 25,000 Form Four leavers who qualify to join university wait for up to 2 years before joining public universities. The most affected are students from poor families who are unable to pay tuition fees in the parallel programme.
The meeting also resolved that the government should sponsor students join private universities.
And to allow more students to access university education, Ruto announced that the government will in January start an Open ICT University which will provide distance learning programmes.
The fully fledged university will be fully subsidised by the government.
Relevant Links
* East Africa
* Kenya
* Education
Currently, universities spent a large sum of their money on ICT programmes.
Ruto said the need to admit more students should not compromise the universities desire and goal of providing quality education.
He also took issue with the growing trend where public universities were being turned into tribal cabals with majority of the employees all coming from one ethnic group.
Last week the National Cohesion and Integration Commission said it would launch a probe of public universities following complaints that there was rampant tribalism in the hiring of staff.
Yesterday, Ruto said his ministry would develop a mechanisms to deal with a problem that was defeating the purpose of having universities as arenas for diversity.
"There are serious figures of ethnic bigotry within the 13 constituent colleges. The constituent colleges' management need to liaise with the ministry on what is going to happen," Ruto said.
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global warming
This article is about the effects of global warming and climate change.[2] The effects, or impacts, of climate change may be physical, ecological, social or economic. Evidence of observed climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere.[3] According to IPCC (2007a:10), "[most] of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in [human greenhouse gas] concentrations". It is predicted that future climate changes will include further global warming (i.e., an upward trend in global mean temperature), sea level rise, and a probable increase in the frequency of some extreme weather events. Signatories of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change have agreed to implement policies designed to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases.
Overview
Global mean surface temperature difference from the average for 1880-2009
Mean surface temperature change for the period 1999 to 2008 relative to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980
Over the last hundred years or so, the instrumental temperature record has shown a trend in climate of increased global mean temperature, i.e., global warming. Other observed changes include Arctic shrinkage, Arctic methane release, releases of terrestrial carbon from permafrost regions and Arctic methane release in coastal sediments, and sea level rise.[4][5] Global average temperature is predicted to increase over this century, with a probable increase in frequency of some extreme weather events, and changes in rainfall patterns. Moving from global to regional scales, there is increased uncertainty over how climate will change. The probability of warming having unforeseen consequences increases with the rate, magnitude, and duration of climate change.[6] Some of the physical impacts of climate change are irreversible at continental and global scales.[7] With medium confidence, IPCC (2007b:17) concluded that with a global average temperature increase of 1–4°C, (relative to 1990–2000) partial deglaciation of the Greenland ice sheet would occur over a period of centuries to millennia.[8] Including the possible contribution of partial deglaciation of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, sea level would rise by 4–6 m or more.
The impacts of climate change across world population will not be distributed evenly (Smith et al., 2001:957).[9] Some regions and sectors are expected to experience benefits while others will experience costs. With greater levels of warming (greater than 2–3°C by 2100, relative to 1990 temperature levels), it is very likely that benefits will decline and costs increase (IPCC, 2007b:17). Low-latitude and less-developed areas are probably at the greatest risk from climate change (Schneider et al.., 2007:781).[10] With human systems, adaptation potential for climate change impacts is considerable, although the costs of adaptation are largely unknown and potentially large. In a literature assessment, Schneider et al.. (2007:792) concluded, with high confidence, that climate change would likely result in reduced diversity of ecosystems and the extinction of many species.
Definition of climate change
This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC. In their usage, "climate change" refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties, and that persists for extended periods, typically decades or longer (IPCC, 2007d:30).[11] The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes or the result of human activity.
Physical impacts
Main article: Physical impacts of climate change
This section describes some physical impacts of climate change. For some of these physical impacts, their effect on social and economic systems are also described.
Effects on weather
Increasing temperature is likely to lead to increasing precipitation [12][13] but the effects on storms are less clear. Extratropical storms partly depend on the temperature gradient, which is predicted to weaken in the northern hemisphere as the polar region warms more than the rest of the hemisphere.[14]
Extreme weather
See also: Extreme weather, Tropical cyclone#Global warming, and List of Atlantic hurricane records
IPCC (2007a:8) predicted that in the future, over most land areas, the frequency of warm spells or heat waves would very likely increase.[3] Other likely changes are listed below:
* Increased areas will be affected by drought
* There will be increased intense tropical cyclone activity
* There will be increased incidences of extreme high sea level (excluding tsunamis)
Local climate change
Main article: Regional effects of global warming
The first recorded South Atlantic hurricane, "Catarina", which hit Brazil in March 2004
Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice. In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system. In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend.
There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation and precipitation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise.
Biogeochemical cycles
See also: climate change feedback
Climate change may have an effect on the carbon cycle in an interactive "feedback" process . A feedback exists where an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in turn influences the initial process. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces it (IPCC, 2007d:78).[11] Models suggest that the interaction of the climate system and the carbon cycle is one where the feedback effect is positive (Schneider et al.., 2007:792).[10]
Using the A2 SRES emissions scenario, Schneider et al.. (2007:789) found that this effect led to additional warming by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 period, of 0.1 to 1.5 °C. This estimate was made with high confidence. The climate projections made in the IPCC Forth Assessment Report of 1.1 to 6.4 °C account for this feedback effect. On the other hand, with medium confidence, Schneider et al.. (2007) commented that additional releases of GHGs were possible from permafrost, peat lands, wetlands, and large stores of marine hydrates at high latitudes.
Glacier retreat and disappearance
Main article: Retreat of glaciers since 1850
A map of the change in thickness of mountain glaciers since 1970. Thinning in orange and red, thickening in blue.
IPCC (2007a:5) found that, on average, mountain glaciers and snow cover had decreased in both the northern and southern hemispheres.[3] This widespread decrease in glaciers and ice caps has contributed to observed sea level rise. With very high or high confidence, IPCC (2007d:11) made a number of predictions relating to future changes in glaciers:[11]
* Mountainous areas in Europe will face glacier retreat
* In Latin America, changes in precipitation patterns and the disappearance of glaciers will significantly affect water availability for human consumption, agriculture, and energy production
* In Polar regions, there will be reductions in glacier extent and the thickness of glaciers.
Oceans
The role of the oceans in global warming is a complex one. The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2. Global warming is projected to have a number of effects on the oceans. Ongoing effects include rising sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of the ocean surface, leading to increased temperature stratification. Other possible effects include large-scale changes in ocean circulation.
Acidification
Main article: Ocean acidification
Dissolving CO2 in seawater increases the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the ocean, and thus decreases ocean pH. Caldeira and Wickett (2003) placed the rate and magnitude of modern ocean acidification changes in the context of probable historical changes during the last 300 million years.[15] Since the industrial revolution began, it is estimated that surface ocean pH has dropped by slightly more than 0.1 units (on the logarithmic scale of pH; approximately a 30% increase in H+), and it is estimated that it will drop by a further 0.3 to 0.5 units (more than doubling ocean H+ concentrations) by 2100 as the oceans absorb more anthropogenic CO2.[15] [16][17]
Oxygen depletion
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans may decline, with adverse consequences for ocean life.[18][19]
Sea level rise
Main article: Current sea level rise
IPCC (2007a:5) reported that since 1961, global average sea level had risen at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr.[3] Between 1993 and 2003, the rate increased above the previous period to 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr. IPCC (2007a) were uncertain whether the increase in rate from 1993 to 2003 was due to natural variations in sea level over the time period, or whether it reflected an increase in the underlying long-term trend.
IPCC (2007a:13, 14) projected sea level rise to the end of the 21st century using the SRES emission scenarios. Across the six SRES marker scenarios, sea level was projected to rise by 18 to 59 cm (7.1 to 23.2 inches). This projection was for the time period 2090-2099, with the increase in level relative to average sea levels over the 1980-1999 period. Due to a lack of scientific understanding, this sea level rise estimate does not include all of the possible contributions of ice sheets (see the section on abrupt or irreversible changes).
Temperature rise
From 1961 to 2003, the global ocean temperature has risen by 0.10 °C from the surface to a depth of 700 m. There is variability both year-to-year and over longer time scales, with global ocean heat content observations showing high rates of warming for 1991 to 2003, but some cooling from 2003 to 2007.[20] The temperature of the Antarctic Southern Ocean rose by 0.17 °C (0.31 °F) between the 1950s and the 1980s, nearly twice the rate for the world's oceans as a whole [21]. As well as having effects on ecosystems (e.g. by melting sea ice, affecting algae that grow on its underside), warming reduces the ocean's ability to absorb CO2.[citation needed]
Social systems
Main article: Climate change, industry and society
Food supply
Main article: Climate change and agriculture
See also: Food security, Food vs fuel, and 2007–2008 world food price crisis
Climate change will impact agriculture and food production around the world due to: the effects of elevated CO2 in the atmosphere, higher temperatures, altered precipitation and transpiration regimes, increased frequency of extreme events, and modified weed, pest, and pathogen pressure (Easterling et al.., 2007:282).[22] In general, low-latitude areas are at most risk of having decreased crop yields (Schneider et al.., 2007:790).[10] With low to medium confidence, Schneider et al.. (2007:787) concluded that for about a 1 to 3°C global mean temperature increase (by 2100, relative to the 1990-2000 average level) there would be productivity decreases for some cereals in low latitudes, and productivity increases in high latitudes. With medium confidence, global production potential was predicted to:
* increase up to around 3°C,
* very likely decrease above about 3 to 4°C.
Most of the studies on global agriculture assessed by Schneider et al.. (2007:790) had not incorporated a number of critical factors, including changes in extreme events, or the spread of pests and diseases. Studies had also not considered the development of specific practices or technologies to aid adaptation.
Health
Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy (Confalonieri et al.., 2007:393).[23] According to a literature assessment by Confalonieri et al.. (2007:393), the effects of climate change to date have been small, but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions.
With high confidence, Confalonieri et al.. (2007:393) concluded that climate change had altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen species. With medium confidence, they concluded that climate change had:
* altered the distribution of some infectious disease vectors
* increased heatwave-related deaths
With high confidence, IPCC (2007d:48) projected that:[11]
* the health status of millions of people would be affected through, for example, increases in malnutrition; increased deaths, diseases and injury due to extreme weather events; increased burden of diarrhoeal diseases; increased frequency of cardio-respiratory diseases due to high concentrations of ground-level ozone in urban areas related to climate change; and altered spatial distribution of some infectious diseases.
* climate change would bring some benefits in temperate areas, such as fewer deaths from cold exposure, and some mixed effects such as changes in range and transmission potential of malaria in Africa. Overall, IPCC (2007d:48) expected that benefits would be outweighed by negative health effects of rising temperatures, especially in developing countries.
With very high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007:393) concluded that economic development was an important component of possible adaptation to climate change. Economic growth on its own, however, was not judged to be sufficient to insulate the world's population from disease and injury due to climate change. The manner in which economic growth occurs was judged to be important, along with how the benefits of growth are distributed in society. Examples of other important factors in determining the health of populations were listed as: education, health care, and public-health infrastructure.
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